Category: Policy Papers
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Up in the Air: What Could FCAS Mean for Common EU Defence Projects?
CSDS POLICY BRIEF • 6/2026 The FCAS project appears to be over, at least in its original incarnation, although technological elements of the project may be salvaged, such as the development of a combat cloud. The case of FCAS serves as a cautionary tale for how to develop collaborative defence…
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Which Type of Armament Cooperation Do We Want/Need? The Case of Spain
ARES Group (with Félix Arteaga) This paper is the second of the ARES series titled “Which type of armament cooperation do we want/need?”. The purpose of this series is to explore how EU Member States envision the future of armaments cooperation, taking in account the objective to develop joint procurement…
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More Money, More Dependence? Financing EU Defence for Autonomy and Cooperation
Foundation for European Progressive Studies Europe is entering an era of unprecedented defence investment, with EU institutions and member states projected to spend nearly €6.8 trillion on defence by 2035. This surge comes amid a deteriorating security environment shaped by Russia’s war on Ukraine, growing transatlantic uncertainty and intensifying dependencies on non-EU defence…
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Beyond the Summit: Navigating the Future of NATO and European Defence
The Hague NATO Summit on 25 June 2025 will possibly go down in history as the moment when Europeans were put on serious notice by the United States that Washington was no longer going to subsidise European security. As a long-standing objective of the Trump administration, European allies were cajoled…
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Decarbonising Defence: Reconciling the Green Agenda with the Reindustrialisation of Europe’s Defence Sector
This commentary explores the intersection between Europe’s reindustrialisation of its defence sector and the European Union’s (EU) decarbonisation agenda. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has accelerated efforts to strengthen Europe’s defence technological and industrial base (EDTIB), yet this rearmament drive occurs alongside legally binding climate neutrality targets. The commentary examines whether…
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The Price of Plenty: Industrial Overcapacities, China and European Defence
Despite the European Union’s (EU) steps in recent months to boost defence investment, the sector faces structural challenges, not least due to global industrial overcapacities. Large financial investments are being made in the European defence sector, but the EU must now address the structural issues that inhibit the growth of…
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Return on Investment? Understanding the Rationales for Increased Military Expenditure in Europe
As an academic discipline, defence economics leans towards the conclusion that military expenditure does not contribute to economic growth, and, to the extent that it does, it is in limited areas. Ultimately, governments cannot justify defence expenditure based solely on potential economic returns, as military and strategic justifications are just…
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Money is Not Everything: How to Enhance the EU’s Security and Defence Readiness
The war in Ukraine and worrying shifts in the transatlantic relationship are forcing EU member states and institutions to think more seriously about Europe’s security and defence. Although the EU has had a Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) since the early 2000s, it is only in recent years that…
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The Defence Dilemma: Can Spain Ride Europe’s Defence Revival?
Defence has become a public policy area of the highest priority in Europe. As the war in Ukraine rages on and the second Trump administration encourages Europeans to take ownership of conventional defence within NATO, the European Union (EU) has launched a flurry of initiatives in recent years to bolster Europe’s military capabilities…
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Defence Innovation Trends: A Data Snapshot of the European Defence Fund, 2021-2024
The European Defence Fund (EDF) has been in operation since 2021 and has become an integral part of European efforts to enhance defence investments. Since 2021, the European Commission has invested €4 billion into 225 collaborative defence research and development (R&D) projects. A major challenge will be keeping the momentum…
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Sovereignty by Design? Security of Supply in Defence in the European Union
In 2025, security of supply in defence in the European Union is yet again on the policy agenda, especially given the ongoing war on Ukraine and shifts in the transatlantic relationship. In this policy paper, we take stock of the EU’s recent efforts to develop defence industrial policy and its…
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Going it Alone, Doing So Divided? The Era of Uncertainties and Europe’s Defence Industrial Politics
Despite the epoch changing nature of Russia’s war and the second Trump presidency, Europeans do not yet appear ready for more European Union (EU) defence integration. The European Commission has designed a credible package of defence industrial initiatives, detailed its White Paper, but some schemes risk reinforcing the very structural…
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Special Delivery? The European Council and the March 2025 Defence Summit
The 6 March 2025 European Council special meeting focused on European defence and support to Ukraine. European leaders have put-off answering fundamental questions related to European security guarantees. The special European Council meeting set the parameters for a substantial increase in European defence spending. CSDS Policy Brief Read
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Spending Our Way Out of a Crisis? The Challenges and Benefits of ReArming Europe
The European Commission has announced a €800 billion increase in defence spending, but this figure masks the challenges facing Europe’s defence market. The injection of €150 billion worth of loans for defence raises questions about the real needs of Europe’s defence. The European Commission is set to introduce a raft…
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All in? The revival of the Spanish and European defence industry
Meeting at an informal leaders’ retreat in Brussels in early February 2025, EU leaders were keen to establish the political guidelines for a host of defence policy developments in 2025. In the context of the continuing war against Ukraine, and the uncertainties posed by the new US Administration, Europeans are…
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Unity is Not Enough: How will Europe Navigate the Trumpian Era of Geopolitical Competition?
The second Trump presidency will in many ways be unique, but Europeans will likely still pursue the short-term tactics of keeping a low profile or enhancing bilateralism with the United States (US). Europeans may try to play President Trump at his own game through transactionalism, or to engage with China…
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Integrated Arsenals? Mapping Defence Industrial Relations Between Europe and Ukraine
Since Russia’s war on Ukraine, defence industrial cooperation between the European Union and Ukraine has been put high on the agenda. In addition to the armament deliveries being made to Kyiv, there is now the ambition to integrate Ukraine within the EU and the European Defence Technological and Industrial Base.…
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Manufacturing Defence: Europe, the Republic of Korea and Defence Industrial Cooperation
South Korea has emerged as a major supplier to European militaries, and this has helped with Europe’s imminent need for military rejuvenation. Given the quality of South Korean defence equipment and supplies, Seoul is viewed with credibility in the defence sector and this bodes well for future cooperation. There remain…
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Keep it Moving: From Mobility to Logistics in European Defence
The European Union (EU) has been developing military mobility, but so far with mixed results. It is time to rethink these efforts by investing more generally in military logistics. With the forthcoming “Niinistö Report” and defence White Paper, there is an opportunity to develop the EU’s defence preparedness and make…
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Towards Ambition and Consistency in European Defence Investments
Following the results of the European elections, Ursula von der Leyen delivered a statement at the European Parliament on 18 July 2024 to support her second mandate as European Commission President. Outlining her vision for the future, the President stated that Europe “can choose to invest in the security and…
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Security of Supply: How Can the EU Help Ensure Defence Preparedness?
Given the geopolitical outlook for Europe, security of supply is a necessary element of enhancing the European Defence Technological and Industrial Base (EDTIB) and ensuring industrial readiness and strategic autonomy. The European Commission has proposed a security of supply regime, not least to overcome market fragmentation. A key challenge will…
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A Partner of Choice? Spain’s Performance in the European Defence Fund in 2023
Real Instituto Elcano Since 2021 there have been three calls of proposals under the European Defence Fund (EDF). The 2023 results publicly released by the European Commission in May 2024 reveal that Spain continues to perform well as to the Fund. This can be seen in the way Spain is…
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Strategic Domains: Developing the EU’s Capabilities and Enablers for a Free and Secure Global Order
Future Europe – European Liberal Forum The deteriorating global security order is calling into question old certainties about how freely and securely Europe can access and use global commons such as the seas, air and space. The rise of authoritarian and revisionist powers will only make it more challenging for…
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Defending Europe, That is the Question
In this edition of the European Council Experts’ Debrief, our experts focus on the theme of security and defence. We asked eleven experts to respond to the following question, formulated by TEPSA Secretary-General Jim Cloos and Executive Director Mariam Khotenashvili: “In view of the multiple new threats in a rapidly…
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NATO Summit in Washington: Critical Infrastructure Protection
Instituto da Defesa Nacional Portugal The recent NATO summit, held in Washington from 9 to 11 July, marked the 75th anniversary of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, in the same city where, in 1949, twelve countries, including Portugal, signed this treaty to ensure their collective defence. The meeting brought together…
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The 7Ds – Defence in Depth
When an idea like the defence community re-emerges regularly over the course of 70 years but is never realised, what does this tell us? The message is, first, that the idea is backed by a strong rationale that does not allow us simply to shelve it and move on; but…
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Defence Industry: A New Chapter of Transatlantic Friction?
In profound and significant ways, the defence industry is at the heart of debates about how to organise transatlantic defence cooperation. The United States (US) and its defence industry continue to sell military capabilities and equipment to Europe, a condition that has developed over several decades. The predominant role of American defence…
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Order, Counter-Order, Disorder? Regional and Global Security Orders in the Shadow of Sino-American Competition
As part of an international security seminar organised by the US Military Academy, West Point, in February 2023, a collection of essays have been produced based on the panel sessions. I was extremely pleased to contribute three essays to the collection along with my great American colleagues. The three papers…
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Beyond Strategy? Industrial Strategy and the Future of European Defence
On 5 March 2024, the European Union published its first ever European Defence Industrial Strategy. In the wake of Russia’s war on Ukraine, Europe understands that investing in its defence industrial and technological base is a core way of enhancing Europe’s defence, playing a bigger role in transatlantic burden-sharing and lowering manufacturing and technology…
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War Economy: Ukraine, the European Union and the Defence Technological and Industrial Base
Ukraine’s defence industry has become a central feature of the country’s military strategy against Russia, and the European Union (EU) understood early on the potential of cooperation with Ukraine in this sector. This CSDS Policy Brief explains how there are several challenges to integrating Ukraine’s defence industry into the European Defence…
Daniel Fiott 